Publication Date

12-2025

Date of Final Oral Examination (Defense)

7-23-2025

Type of Culminating Activity

Thesis

Degree Title

Master of Science in Kinesiology

Department

Kinesiology

Supervisory Committee Chair

Yong Gao, Ph.D.

Supervisory Committee Co-Chair

Lynda Ransdell, Ph.D.

Supervisory Committee Member

Tyler N. Brown, Ph.D.

Supervisory Committee Member

Shuqi Zhang, Ph.D.

Abstract

Introduction: Skating is a fundamental skill in ice hockey that relies on effective directional force and power generation. Due to biomechanical similarities, off-ice jump tests (e.g., vertical and broad jumps) are often used to assess and predict skating abilities and performance. However, most traditional jump tests are unilateral and do not reflect the multidirectional nature of skating propulsion. The relationship between off-ice force production and in-game skating performance remains unclear, particularly in recreational female hockey players, who are biomechanically distinct and underrepresented in research. Although a 45° push-off angle has been shown to optimize force production in elite male athletes, its applicability to recreational female athletes is still unknown. This study introduces a novel Unilateral Triaxial Jump Test (UTJT) designed to replicate the directional mechanics of skating propulsion. Its relationship with in-game skating metrics, captured via wearable technology, has not been previously examined. Additionally, it remains unclear whether inter-limb asymmetries in off-ice force production and hip strength are reflected in limb-specific on-ice performance. Purpose: The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to compare peak ground reaction force components (i.e., lateral, anterior, vertical, and resultant) and jump distance across 30°, 45°, and 60° jump angles; (2) to examine relationships between UTJT metrics and in-game skating performance; and (3) to determine whether off-ice asymmetries in force production and hip strength between limbs are reflected in asymmetries in limb-specific skating performance. Methods: Twenty adult recreational female ice hockey players with ≥ 3 years of skating experience completed three UTJT trials at each angle (30°, 45°, 60°). Ground reaction forces (lateral, anterior, vertical, and resultant) were collected using an AMTI force platform, and jump distances were measured using a measurement tape. Peak isometric hip abduction and adduction strength were assessed using a Humac dynamometer. In-game skating performance was collected using Catapult® S7 wearable sensors over ≥4 games. On-ice skating metrics were categorized into volume (e.g., total and intensity-specific distance, duration, stride count), intensity (e.g., on-ice load and skating load per minute), and power (e.g., average stride force [ASF] and ASF/lb), including limb-specific outputs. Statistical Analysis: Repeated measures MANOVAs assessed differences in UTJT force metrics across jump angles and limbs. Pearson correlations and multiple linear regression analyses examined relationships between off-ice UTJT metrics and in-game skating performance. One-sample t-tests determined whether inter-limb asymmetry values for force production, hip strength, and limb-specific skating performance exceeded established thresholds. Alpha was set at 0.05, and effect sizes were reported using Cohen’s d and partial eta squared (η^²). Results: UTJT performance varied significantly by angle, F(10,12) = 135.43, p < .001, η^² = .99. Lateral force decreased and anterior force increased as angles become more anterior (all ps < .001). Vertical force increased slightly; resultant force showed no significant change. Jump distance was shortest at 30° (ps < .01). UTJT metrics at 30° and 45°, especially lateral, vertical and jump distance were significantly correlated with on-ice variables such as OIL/min, ASF, high-intensity SL, SC, and ASF/lb (rs = .44–.62, ps < .05). Lateral and vertical force at 30° and 45° significantly predicted OIL, ASF, and ASF/lb (R^² = .25–.67, ps < .05); resultant force at 30° and 45° and lateral force at 60° (R^² = .62–.72, all ps < .05) significantly predicted high-intensity workload metrics (SL, SC, ASF/lb). Significant asymmetries in peak adduction muscle strength (>10%), anterior force (>8%), and limb-specific skating metrics, particularly in moderate and high-intensity bands, existed and often exceeded 30–100%. Discussion and Conclusions: UTJT force production varied by jump angle, with significant differences in lateral and anterior forces, but not in resultant force. This suggests that off-ice directional forces are more sensitive to skating movement capabilities than total force because they better capture the force dimensions required for forward skating propulsion. UTJT force metrics at 30° and 45°, excluding anterior force, were significantly associated with and predictive of on-ice performance, particularly under high-intensity conditions, indicating that these angles may better reflect skating-specific demands. Significant inter-limb asymmetries in off-ice force production and on-ice skating metrics highlight the need to monitor limb-specific outputs to identify imbalances. The use of directional force training may increase the efficiency of training programs and shed light on sport-specific deficits not captured utilizing traditional off-ice assessments. This study is among the first to link off-ice directional force production with in-game, limb-specific performance using wearable technology in recreational female hockey players. UTJT, combined with wearable technology, offers a practical method for assessing skating ability in underrepresented athlete populations.

Comments

Abigail Aultz, ORCID: 0009-0003-0225-6798

DOI

https://doi.org/10.18122/td.2441.boisestate

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